Setting up the moment

Teaching & helping the child

Connection, feelings & the body

Coaching a parent or teacher

DIR / Floortime

What happens afterwards

Discrete Trial Training

Early Start Denver Model

Pivotal Response Treatment

Joint Attention, Symbolic Play, Engagement & Regulation

SCERTS

Parent-delivered ESDM

Hanen More Than Words

Project ImPACT

Preschool Autism Communication Therapy

Parent-Child Interaction Therapy (child-directed phase)

RUBI parent training

Responsive Teaching

Early Social Interaction

Occupational therapy using Ayres Sensory Integration

TEACCH structured teaching

Physical environmental arrangement

Varied instruction and multiple cues

Social-environment arrangement and peer training

Communicative temptation / controlled access

Clear teaching opportunity (SD)

Following the child lead / child choice

Antecedent modification for challenging behaviour

Predictable routines, transitions and priming

Visual supports and structured teaching

Preference / reinforcer assessment

Prompting

Joint activity routine

Sensory-social routine

Balanced turn-taking / shared control

Task analysis and chaining

Shaping

Error correction

Discrimination training

Generalisation programming

Developmentally calibrated target (just-right challenge)

Task interspersal

Prompt fading including time delay

Eliciting multiple communicative functions

Pacing the interaction to the child's tempo

In-vivo modelling

Contingent imitation of the child

Adult language matched to the child level

Language expansion / recast

Adult modelling of gestures and joint-attention acts

Play expansion

Natural / intrinsic reinforcement

Functional behaviour assessment

Social reinforcement

Extrinsic tangible reinforcement

Reinforcing attempts / loose contingency

Differential reinforcement

Extinction

Punishment and reductive procedures

Affect and arousal modulation (co-regulation)

Adult positive affect and animation

Sensitivity and contingent responding

Therapeutic alliance / relationship building

Ayres Sensory Integration (ASI)

Exercise and movement

Cognitive and self-management strategies

Passive or single-modality sensory input

Didactic instruction / psychoeducation

Modelling to the trainee

In-vivo practice with performance feedback

Video-based reflective review

Goal setting and action planning

Home practice assignment

Problem solving / barrier troubleshooting

Trainee data collection

Aadrenocorticotropic hormone

Acupuncture is a Traditional Chinese Medicine practice that involves inserting fine needles into specific points on the body to regulate energy flow (Qi) and restore physiological balance. In the context of neurodevelopmental disorders, it is utilized as a complementary therapy believed to modulate neurotransmitters (such as glutamate and GABA) and trigger neurological responses to alleviate symptoms. Treatment protocols are typically customized to the individual by qualified practitioners.

Acupuncture

Adrenocorticotropic hormone

Alpha-2 agonists, specifically clonidine and guanfacine, are FDA-approved ADHD treatments that target brain receptors to regulate norepinephrine and attention. While both medications can be safe and effective in treating ADHD, they may require close monitoring due to potential side effects (e.g., clonidine can lower blood pressure and cause low heart rate and sedation). 

Due to their similarities, they are grouped together for this study.

Alpha-2 agonists (guanfacine / clonidine)

Amantadine

Amantine

Animal-assisted interventions base rehabilitation on the interaction with animals. In the field of animal mediation, the most represented intervention is equine-assisted therapy, based on interaction with the horse (through riding and care).

Animal-assisted interventions (AAI) refer to therapeutic practices based on structured human-animal interactions. The main aim of AAI is to improve physical, emotional, behavioral and social well-being and can rely on interactions with various animals, such as dogs, horses or even dolphins. In the context of ASD, the hypothesis on which the use of animal mediation is based is that of a better predictability of animal movements and behaviors, due to their more repetitive nature than in humans. This would promote better detection and interpretation of social cues (Brondino et al., 2015). Sandbank et al. (2019) note the soothing and motivating nature of this type of context, allowing for improvements beyond social functioning to the psychological well-being of the users of AAI.

These interventions can be of different types:
+Animal-Assisted Therapy: This type of AAI is highly structured, incorporating animals into a therapeutic setting to achieve specific treatment goals. For example, equine-assisted therapy involves interactions with horses to improve physical coordination, balance and emotional stability.
+Animal-Assisted Activities: This type of AAI is less structured than animal-assisted therapy, and focus on improving general well-being and motivation through interactions with animals. Activities may include petting, grooming or simply being in the presence of animals, with the aim of promoting relaxation and reducing stress. 
+Animal-Assisted Education: This last type of AAI integrates animals into educational environments to support academic and social learning.

Animal-assisted

Antidepressants (SSRI)

Antidepressants (tricyclic)

Aripiprazole is an antipsychotic that acts on the dopamine and serotonin systems as a partial agonist.

Aripiprazole

Atomoxetine is a non-stimulant medication that acts on the norepinephrine system as a reuptake inhibitor.

Atomoxetine

Bumetanide

Buspirone is an anxiolytic that acts on the serotonin system as a partial agonist.

Buspirone

L-carnitine is a naturally occurring amino acid derivative that plays a crucial role in energy production. It is synthesized in the body from the amino acids lysine and methionine and is also obtained from dietary sources, particularly meat and dairy products. L-carnitine is essential for the transport of long-chain fatty acids into the mitochondria, where they are oxidized to produce energy. 

Beyond its primary function in fatty acid metabolism, recent research has highlighted L-carnitine involvement in various physiological processes, including cellular energy balance, neuroprotection, and muscle function. These functions make L-carnitine a critical component in overall metabolic health and physical performance.

Given its role in energy metabolism and cellular health, L-carnitine has been investigated for its potential benefits in various health conditions, including cardiovascular diseases, muscle disorders, and neurodegenerative diseases. It is also explored for its possible therapeutic effects in Autism Spectrum Disorder (ASD).

Carnitine

Cholinesterase inhibitors

Clomipramine is a tricyclic antidepressant that acts on the serotonin and norepinephrine systems as a reuptake inhibitor.

Clomipramine

Cognitive Behavioral Therapy is a psychotherapeutic intervention that addresses maladaptive patterns of thinking and behavior. By teaching individuals to recognize cognitive distortions, face fears, and develop practical problem-solving skills, it aims to reduce emotional distress and improve daily functioning.

Cognitive Behavioral Therapy (CBT)

In this constructivist perspective, several authors emphasize the role of social interactions in the development (e.g., Vygostsky, 1978). In line with this perspective, developmental interventions aim to support children acquire knowledge and skills through interactions with caregivers or professionals. Developmental interventions seek to elicit skills in children with ASD that should be present but have not been spontaneously acquired. The targeted skills are chosen based on the developmental stage of the child. These skills are critical for learning and are generally related to interacting with others (e.g., imitiation skills, joint attention skills, etc...).

Two core features of the developmental interventions are (Sandbank et al., 2020):
+the intervention is implemented according to a typical developmental sequence, so that the aim of the interventions matches with the developmental learning stages of the child.
+the intervention is heavily 'child-led' to rely on the child intrinsic motivation to engage with the adult

Developmental int.

Specific Dietary Programmes utilize nutritional interventions to target biological processes like inflammation or metabolic function. These interventions typically involve the strict elimination of potential allergens (e.g., wheat, dairy) or additives to alleviate somatic issues and potentially improve behavioral symptoms.

Diet (restricted/elimination)

Donepezil is an antipsychotic that acts on the acetylcholine system as an enzyme inhibitor.

Donepezil

Because many researchers were concerned that the highly-structured and adult-led environment proposed in the Lovaas program could result in an over-reliance on adults prompts and limit children ability to generalize learned skills to news contexts, both researchers and clinicians have worked to improve and expand the Lovaas program (Schreibman et al., 2015).

Influenced by the work of developmental psychologists, new EIBIs have placed more emphasis on child motivation. In these new approaches, the adult gives the child more control over the choice of materials and the initiative for interactions. Reinforcers are natural, that is, they are directly related to the success of the task. A wider range of responses is accepted and attempts, not only successes, are rewarded.

As in the Lovaas program, these new approaches encompass the fundamentals of ABA methodology (such as DTT), take a comprehensive approach to skills development, and maintain a quite structured environment to facilitate initiative. A prominent example of EIBI inspired by these new approaches is the early start Denver model (ESDM).

Currently, the critical components of EIBI involve the use of:
+ a specific ABA-based teaching procedure (such as DTT)
+ a very intensive format for an extended period of time (e.g., 15 hours per week for at least one year)
+ a one-to-one adult to child ratio or in very small groups

Early Intensive Behavioral

Fenfluramine

Folinic acid, also known as 5-formyl tetrahydrofolic acid or leucovorin, is a vital medication used in various cancer treatments and as an antidote for folic acid antagonists like methotrexate. As a natural and biologically active form of folate, folinic acid enhances the efficacy of chemotherapy agents such as 5-fluorouracil (5-FU) and mitigates the toxic effects of methotrexate. It is particularly crucial in treating colorectal cancer, where it improves patient outcomes when combined with 5-FU. Additionally, folinic acid is used to counteract methotrexate toxicity and to treat folate-deficiency-associated megaloblastic anemia.

While its FDA-approved uses include treating colorectal cancer and megaloblastic anemia, folinic acid also has several off-label applications. These include potential use in treating breast cancer, various non-Hodgkin lymphomas, and as a prophylactic measure for certain infections. It may also help reduce homocysteine levels in patients with hyperhomocysteinemia and protect against bone marrow suppression due to nitrous oxide exposure.

Folinic acid functions by bypassing the need for dihydrofolate reductase, thus rescuing cells from the toxic effects of folic acid antagonists and enhancing the impact of fluoropyrimidines like 5-FU. This action supports critical metabolic processes, including DNA synthesis and repair, by stabilizing enzyme-inhibitor complexes involved in these pathways.

Folinic acid

Haloperidol

Asian Herbal Medicine encompasses a range of traditional therapies originating from East Asian countries, primarily China, Japan, and Korea. These therapies utilize blends formulated from plants, roots, and other natural substances to treat various disorders. Herbal formulas are selected based on traditional diagnostic methods and tailored to the patient individual needs, considering their constitution, specific symptoms, and overall health.

The practice of East Asian Herbal Medicine is deeply rooted in ancient philosophies, such as the concepts of Yin and Yang and the Five Elements, which emphasize balance and harmony within the body. Practitioners use a variety of diagnostic tools, including tongue observation, pulse diagnosis, and detailed patient histories, to determine the most appropriate herbal combinations.

In China, Traditional Chinese Medicine (TCM) incorporates herbal medicine as a key component, often in conjunction with acupuncture and other modalities. Chinese herbal formulas may include well-known herbs like ginseng, licorice root, and astragalus, each selected for its unique properties and therapeutic effects.

East Asian Herbal Medicine is recognized for its holistic approach, which is thought to address not only the symptoms but also the underlying causes of the condition. It aims to enhance the body natural ability to heal and maintain health, offering a complementary or alternative option to conventional Western medicine. As with any form of treatment, it is essential for patients to consult with qualified practitioners to ensure the safe and effective use of herbal therapies.

Herbal medicine

L-carnosine is a dipeptide molecule composed of the amino acids beta-alanine and histidine. It is found in high concentrations in muscle tissue and the brain, playing a crucial role in cellular health and function. L-carnosine acts as a potent antioxidant, neutralizing harmful free radicals and protecting cells from oxidative stress.
Beyond its antioxidative properties, recent research has highlighted L-carnosine involvement in various physiological processes, including protein homeostasis, cellular repair, and immune regulation. These functions contribute to its importance in maintaining overall health and preventing age-related decline.

Given its role in cellular protection and repair, L-carnosine has been investigated for its potential benefits in a range of health conditions, including neurodegenerative diseases, cardiovascular health, and metabolic disorders. It has also been explored for its possible therapeutic effects in Autism Spectrum Disorder (ASD).

L-Carnosine

Melatonin is a hormone primarily produced by the pineal gland in the brain. It plays a crucial role in regulating the sleep-wake cycle by signaling the body to prepare for sleep when night falls. Melatonin levels typically rise in the evening, remain high throughout the night, and decrease in the morning, helping to synchronize the body internal clock with the external environment.

Melatonin supplementation is commonly used to regulate sleep cycles and promote better rest, particularly in individuals with sleep disorders, jet lag, or irregular sleep patterns. By improving the quality and consistency of sleep, melatonin can have a positive impact on overall health and well-being.
Adequate sleep is essential for cognitive functions such as memory, attention, and problem-solving. Therefore, improving sleep quality through melatonin supplementation is expected to lead to better cognitive performance and behavioral regulation.

Melatonin is often used in various therapeutic contexts, including for children with autism spectrum disorder (ASD), where sleep disturbances are common. Dosage, timing, and potential interactions with other medications or health conditions need to be carefully managed with a healthcare professional to ensure optimal benefits and minimize any adverse effects.

Melatonin

Memantine is a medication primarily used to treat moderate to severe Alzheimer disease. It works by regulating the activity of glutamate, a neurotransmitter involved in learning and memory. By blocking excessive glutamate activity at NMDA (N-methyl-D-aspartate) receptors, memantine helps to prevent neuronal damage and improve cognitive function in individuals with Alzheimer disease.

Recent studies suggest that memantine effects extend beyond Alzheimer treatment, potentially offering benefits in other neurodegenerative conditions and cognitive disorders. Its ability to modulate glutamate activity and reduce excitotoxicity indicates a broader role in neuroprotection and cognitive enhancement. This makes memantine a valuable tool in managing conditions characterized by cognitive decline and offers hope for broader applications in neuropsychiatric and neurodegenerative disorders.

Memantine

Methylphenidate is an FDA-approved stimulant medication widely used as a first-line treatment for ADHD. It functions by inhibiting the reuptake of dopamine and norepinephrine to regulate inattention and impulsivity. Like other stimulants, it is a controlled substance requiring close monitoring due to abuse potential and side effects (e.g., appetite suppression, and sleep disruption).

Methylphenidate

Music therapy leverages the emotional, cognitive, and social dimensions of music to promote improvements in these areas and achieve therapeutic goals. Interventions involve structured musical activities such as singing, playing an instrument, improvising, and listening to music. These activities are designed to engage individuals in a motivating and enjoyable way. 

The World Federation of Music Therapy (WFMT) defines music therapy as 'the professional use of music and its elements as an intervention in medical, educational, and everyday environments with individuals, groups, families, or communities who seek to optimize their quality of life and improve their physical, social, communicative, emotional, intellectual, and spiritual health and wellbeing.' Music therapy includes various activities, such as: 
+Music listening: Passive engagement with music to induce relaxation or evoke emotional responses.
+Practice: Active engagement through singing, playing instruments, and rhythm training to enhance motor skills and coordination.
+Improvisational music-making: Creating spontaneous music to encourage creativity and expression.

In the context of autism, music therapy operates on the premise that music is a universal language that can stimulate communication. It can help individuals with autism by encouraging joint attention, eye contact, and turn-taking, making it accessible to both verbal and non-verbal people. Additionally, musical improvisation provides a structured yet flexible context, offering predictability with room for spontaneity.

Music therapy

N-acetylcysteine (NAC) is a derivative of the amino acid cysteine and serves as a precursor to glutathione, one of the body essential antioxidants. Glutathione plays a critical role in protecting cells from oxidative stress and maintaining overall cellular health. Due to its powerful antioxidant properties and its ability to modulate the glutamatergic and dopaminergic systems, NAC has been explored as a therapeutic option for various psychiatric and neurological conditions.

N-acetylcysteine

Naltrexone is an opioid-receptor antagonist, used mainly to reduce craving and relapse in addiction.

Naltrexone

Schreibman et al. (2015) described 13 core principles of NDBIs:
+Teaching incorporates the three-part contingency of antecedent, behaviour, consequence.
+The use of a manual to guide implementation.
+Fidelity checks to ensure the intervention is implemented accurately.
+Individualised intervention goals.
+Ongoing measurement of progress.
+Child-initiated teaching episodes.
+Arranging the environment to promote children interaction and learning.
+A focus on intrinsic reinforcement and natural contingencies, over external reinforcement.
+Use of prompting and prompt fading to teach skills, leading to children independent use.
+Helping children to learn to take turns in social and play routines.
+Adults modelling the skills children are being supported to learn.
+Adults imitating children actions and attempts to communicate to motivate further communication attempts.
+Systematic attempts to broaden children repertoires of skills and interests

Naturalistic int.

Oxytocin is a neuropeptide hormone that plays a crucial role in social bonding, trust, and emotional regulation. It is naturally produced in the hypothalamus and released into the bloodstream and brain, where it influences various aspects of social behavior. In clinical settings, oxytocin is mainly administered intranasally to target the central nervous system directly. 

Due to its significant role in social cognition and behavior, oxytocin has been studied as a potential therapeutic agent for Autism Spectrum Disorder (ASD) with the aim of improving social functioning. Nasal administration allows oxytocin to cross the blood-brain barrier more efficiently, facilitating its action on brain regions involved in social cognition. 
Interventions based on intranasal oxytocin administration are grounded in its involvement in enhancing social cognition, including theory of mind and empathy (Hammock et al., 2015). The proposed mechanisms of action include: 
+Fear Reduction: Oxytocin may reduce fear and anxiety, making social interactions less intimidating and more manageable for individuals with ASD.
+Increased Social Motivation: By enhancing the reward system associated with social interactions, oxytocin may increase the desire to engage in social activities.
+Improved Detection of Social Cues: Oxytocin might enhance the ability to recognize and interpret social signals, such as facial expressions and body language, thereby improving social communication.

Commonly, oxytocin is administered in dosages ranging from 18 to 40 international units (IU) per day, divided into multiple doses. It is essential for these interventions to be supervised by healthcare professionals to ensure safety and monitor for any potential side effects, such as nasal irritation or headaches.

Oxytocin

Parent-Mediated Interventions (PMI) involve training parents to function as the primary agents of therapeutic change. By applying techniques in the daily environment, these interventions aim to facilitate early intervention and improve skill generalization. While the delivery model is consistent, the focus adapts to the condition: interventions for Autism typically target social communication and joint attention, whereas those for ADHD primarily focus on behavior management and structural support.

Parent-mediated behavioral interventions

Physical Training (encompassing interventions such as) involves structured or unstructured bodily movement to enhance physical and mental well-being. It is utilized as a complementary therapy to improve motor coordination, emotional regulation, and social interaction through individual or group-based activities.

Physical training

Polyunsaturated Fatty Acids (PUFAs), specifically Omega-3s like EPA and DHA, are essential fatty acids critical for brain function and development. Because the human body cannot synthesize them, they must be obtained through diet or supplementation, where they are utilized as a complementary intervention to support cognitive health and reduce inflammation.

Polyunsaturated fatty acids

Probiotics are living microorganisms consumed to maintain intestinal microbial balance. Through the gut-brain axis, they are hypothesized to influence neurological and psychological conditions by modulating the immune system and neurotransmitter production.

Probiotics

Riluzole

Risperidone is an antipsychotic that acts on the dopamine and serotonin systems as an antagonist.

Risperidone

Secretin is a peptide hormone produced in the small intestine, playing a crucial role in the digestive system by regulating the pH of the small intestine and stimulating the secretion of bicarbonate by the pancreas. This bicarbonate neutralizes stomach acid, creating an optimal environment for digestive enzymes to function.

Interest in secretin as a treatment for Autism Spectrum Disorder (ASD) was sparked by a report suggesting that a child with ASD showed marked improvements in language and behavior following an infusion of secretin during an endoscopy procedure. This observation led to further exploration of secretin potential therapeutic effects for individuals with ASD.

Secretin

Sensory Integration Therapy (SENS) is an intervention designed to help individuals with sensory processing problems, which are common in Autism Spectrum Disorder (ASD). Developed by occupational therapist Anna Jean Ayres, SIT is based on the principle that difficulties in processing and integrating sensory information can lead to challenges in daily functioning, behavior, and social interactions. The goal of SIT is to enhance the brain ability to process sensory information from the body and the environment, enabling individuals to respond to sensory stimuli more appropriately.

In the context of ASD, SENS involves a variety of activities designed to stimulate the sensory systems (vision, touch, smell, taste, hearing, vestibular, proprioceptive) in a structured and repetitive manner. These therapies can include techniques such as auditory integration training (AIT) and other sensory-based activities tailored to meet the specific needs of each individual.

Sensory Integration

Social skills groups (SSG) are a form of behavioral intervention rooted in the learning theory. It is aiming to improve an individual social functioning by teaching to small groups certain social skills in a theory-based format and immediately associating this teaching with the practice of the newly learned skill. 

Typically, SSG sessions begin through specific instruction on a social skill, explain how to carry it out and model the skill. Then, the group members practice their use of the skill (e.g., through role-playing). The presence of several members in the group allows individuals with ASD to support each other and to have examples, and the presence of several clinicians allows to provide an individualized feedback. Repetition, practice, as well as behavioral techniques (such as immediate reinforcement) and cognitive strategies are used to increase the likelihood that the skill will be used again outside the context of the intervention.

A common plan for SSG is:
+60 to 90 minutes sessions including both a structured lesson on a specific skill and the concrete practice of this skill
+one session per week
+for at least 12 weeks

Social skills groups

Stem cell therapy

Sulforaphane is a naturally occurring compound found in cruciferous vegetables such as broccoli, Brussels sprouts, and kale. It is a type of isothiocyanate, which is produced when the enzyme myrosinase transforms glucoraphanin (a glucosinolate) into sulforaphane during the chewing and digestion of these vegetables. Sulforaphane is renowned for its potent antioxidant and anti-inflammatory properties. 
Recent research has highlighted sulforaphane involvement in various physiological processes, including detoxification, cellular protection, and modulation of the body defense systems. These functions make sulforaphane a vital compound in promoting overall health and preventing chronic diseases. 

Given its role in cellular protection and detoxification, sulforaphane has been investigated for its potential benefits in various health conditions, including cancer prevention, cardiovascular health, and neurodegenerative diseases. It is also explored for its possible therapeutic effects in Autism Spectrum Disorder (ASD). In the context of ASD, sulforaphane may influence cognitive function, behavior, and neurological health by reducing oxidative stress and inflammation, which are often elevated in individuals with ASD.

Sulforaphane

The TEACCH program is based on structured teaching and applied behavior analysis, with the core principle of organizing the learning environment to promote the acquisition of new skills. According to Mesibov and Shea (2010), the four essential mechanisms of the TEACCH are:
+structuring the environment and activities in ways that are understandable to the individual
+using individuals relative strengths in visual skills and interest in visual details to supplement relatively weaker skills
+using individuals special interests to engage them in learning
+supporting self-initiated use of meaningful communication.
Structuring the environment - in both space and time - is achieved through:
+providing a physical structuration, for example by using clear and concrete visual information (words, pictures, photos, or concrete objects)
+organizing and communicating the sequence of events of the day, by creating schedules adapted to the person
+organizing individual activities, to facilitate, for example, the understanding of what is expected of the person during the activity, the time it will take or the signal that will indicate that the activity is finished
+linking all the activities together into a sequence of activities

Once a skill has been established, patients or caregivers are then taught to use that behavior in a less structured and less "accommodating" environment. Generalization of skills and abilities is then achieved by repeating, in new contexts, the exercises performed with professionals. Note that this program is often implanted in classrooms but it has also been used at home or in the community.

The long-term goal of the TEACCH program is to promote optimal functioning to facilitate integration into society. Unlike other more specific programs, the TEACCH program offers a continuum of services to patients, their families, and practitioners across the lifespan.

TEACCH

Repetitive Transcranial Magnetic Stimulation is a non-invasive neuromodulation technique that uses electromagnetic fields to stimulate or inhibit specific brain regions. Typically administered in daily outpatient sessions, it is studied for its ability to alter neuronal activity patterns associated with psychiatric and neurodevelopmental conditions.

TMS-rTMS

The Vasopressin receptor antagonist V1a-RA is a key focus in anxiety and stress research. AVP affects brain regions involved in anxiety, such as the amygdala, and may be linked to anxiety disorders and post-traumatic stress disorder. Clinical studies show decreased AVP levels following anxiolytic treatment. V1a receptors are abundant in areas like the lateral septum and bed nucleus of the stria terminalis, which are involved in fear and anxiety regulation. 

Animal studies have shown that V1a receptor antagonists reduce anxious behavior in various tests, suggesting their potential for anxiety treatment. Clinical research also indicates that genetic variations in the V1a receptor can influence amygdaloid activation to emotional stimuli. The V1a receptor antagonist SRX246 is being evaluated for its effects on non-social fear and anxiety in humans. These findings underscore the importance of targeting the V1a receptor in addressing both anxiety and fear, which may require distinct treatment approaches due to their different underlying neural circuits.

Vasopressin

As Gryzspan et al. (2014) point out, using technology as a medium for an intervention has several interests:
+Many people with ASD have a significant interest in technology (Bernard-Opitz et al., 2001; Moore and Calvert, 2000).
+Technologies allow to have very clearly defined task and to provide instructions and guidance based on visual cues (Quill, 1997).
+Technologies help limit sensory stimuli that can cause attentional distractions in people with ASD (Murray, 1997).
+Technologies help limit the social demand that can be disruptive to individuals with ASD (although a limitation of this reduction in social demand is the risk of reinforcing social isolation; e.g., Durkin, 2010).

Technology-based

Tetrahydrobiopterin

V1a receptor antagonists (balovaptan, RG7713)

Valproate is an anticonvulsant and mood stabiliser; its precise mechanism of action is not fully established.

Valproate

Vitamin B12

Vitamin D is an essential nutrient critical for bone health, immune regulation, and neuroprotection. Research explores its role in modulating genes and neuronal pathways involved in social behavior and cognition, particularly in individuals with documented deficiencies.

Vitamin D

Transcranial Direct Current Stimulation is a non-invasive brain stimulation technique that delivers low-intensity electrical currents to the scalp. It aims to modulate neuronal excitability (specifically in the dorsolateral prefrontal cortex) to potentially improve social communication, cognitive flexibility, and reduce repetitive behaviors.

Vitamin D

Reference

Number of meta-analyses